2012年5月14日星期一

艾略特•史伯岭(Elliot Sperling):关于原因及目的





作者:Elliot Sperling(艾略特•史伯岭),印地安那大学中欧亚研究系
译者:黄潇潇 @xiaoxiaom
文章来源:《文化人类学》(Cultural Anthropology)学刊特刊
标题:On the Questions of Why and to What End
时间:2012年4月1日
原文网址:http://culanth.org/?q=node/532

围绕自2009年2月起在图伯特出现的自焚事件之浪潮争议不断,争论的话题包括自焚者的动机及这种行为的内在价值(或者说根本没有)。这些争论在中国境内和境外并行,有时成为平行不相交的讨论。而流亡博巴(藏人)社会的最初解读,是将自焚归因于失去希望和自暴自弃的绝望。这种解读在流亡生活自身的结构依赖性中最能得到理解;流亡生活常鼓励以悲悯为基础的诉请,以求打动恩人的良心。但一篇文章让这种思路戛然而止,其作者是图伯特事务的长期观察者克里斯托夫•白苏且(Christophe Besuchet)。根据自焚者的已知信息和说过的话,他指出没有证据显示沮丧和绝望;相反,现有的自焚者个人信息虽不完全,却指明这些行动出于坚决的政治蔑视和抵抗。

如果说流亡博巴是依照自身境遇来解读这些行为,那么几位在网上写作的中国自由知识分子也做了同样的事。他们想当然地认为,自焚博巴是在徒劳尝试唤醒当局的良心,冀望他们看到图伯特的苦难之深。这句评价就是一例:“任何自焚都只能说明自焚者对当局心存最后的善意幻想。”境外早期的一些评价也折射出类似观点,认为这些行为浪费生命,而且从根本上违背佛教教义。在这一点上,一位流亡博巴发言人坚决表明赞同《人民日报》上一位中国评论者的言论,后者谴责自焚者违背佛教要义。这种情绪相应地使一些人主张达赖喇嘛呼吁停止这种行为。而这当然会置他于尴尬的处境。若他的呼吁起不了作用,则可能使他的非官方权威遭到质疑。若有作用,则中国宣称他在操纵图伯特境内的抗议时,就更有口实可依。另一位倍受尊敬的喇嘛噶玛巴,在2011年11月公开呼吁勿再自焚,但自焚事件依旧持续。他尚未重申呼吁。有影响力的作家茨仁唯色起初抵制呼吁停止自焚,声称这样的呼吁不会减轻自焚的理由,但在2012年3月4日一位寡妇母亲自焚并留下四个孤儿后,唯色在继续保持尊重自焚者的同时,也呼吁停止更多自焚行为。然而自焚仍然没有停止。

汉人作家王力雄尝试清晰表述一种使博巴抗议超越自焚的方式,他认为自焚确已起到作用:它们鼓舞了博巴的勇气,并极大巩固了博巴在面对中国统治时的团结一心。这其中折射出对现状无比清醒的理解,远甚于认为博巴自焚只是为了打动中国官僚者之心的徒劳举动,或认为这是绝望之举的观点,后者实际上是源于说者自身的狭隘投射。(当然,与一些圈子里的想法相反,图伯特和图伯特问题并不占据中国大多数人的思绪,这点自不用说。)面对图伯特境内对自焚者广泛、正面的同情和支持,对其“不符合佛教教义”的批评并没有得到响应。一条匿名的博巴在博客上的留言或许更典型地体现了境内博巴对自焚的看法;肯定比其他观察者的投射给人的导向更典型:“试问手稍微刮破却大声喊痛的我们有这个胆量为自由事业献出生命吗?……是的,一想到自焚英雄们,我为自己天生的懦弱、胆怯和无用感到惭愧。”

王力雄和茨仁唯色都呼吁博巴超越自焚的策略。与此同时,两人都没有贬低自焚者,更不用说将他们刻画为背弃佛教教义。但在缺失以公民社会的选项来组织和平抗议与异议的大背景下,很难设想出可行的替代策略。自焚是一种独自、个人的抗议行为,只在刹那间即可付诸于行动,当局几乎没有机会阻止或扑灭抗议者所传达的信息。要中止当前的自焚浪潮,可能需要足以产生可比效应的替代策略,或者需要当局让出表达异议的足够空间。

2012年4月1日

链接:

断言自焚违背佛教教义,或者是浪费生命:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/nov/25/tibetan-deaths-violate-buddhism
http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90780/7662987.html
http://weblog.savetibet.org/2011/12/02/this-chinese-is-right-about-tibetan-self-immolation/~~V

王力雄的文章:
http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=30717&t=1

克里斯托夫•白苏且的文章这里可见:
http://www.rangzen.net/2012/01/28/beacons-of-resistance-not-desperate-acts/
(中文译文:是抵抗的灯塔,不是绝望的行动 http://woeser.middle-way.net/2012/01/blog-post_29.html

断言博巴自焚是妄图唤醒官方良心:
http://lhakardiaries.com/2011/10/19/how-about-some-respect/(向下滚动,可见笔者的意见)

对于牺牲和怯懦的意见:http://woeser.middle-way.net/2011/12/blog-post_29.html

茨仁唯色的呼吁书:
http://woeser.middle-way.net/2012/03/blog-post_08.html


On the Questions of Why and to What End
Elliot Sperling, Department of Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana Universit
y
Among the controversies surrounding the wave of self-immolations inside Tibet that began in February 2009 are debates over the motives of those committing these acts and their inherent value (or lack thereof). These debates are going on both within and without the People’s Republic of China, at times as parallel, non-intersecting discussions. The first interpretations from the Tibetan exile community ascribed the self-immolations to hopelessness and suicidal despair, an interpretation that can be best understood within the structural dependency built into exile life, which often encourages pathos-based appeals to the consciences of benefactors. But this tack was largely brought to a screeching halt by one essay, written by the long-time observer of Tibetan affairs, Christophe Besuchet. Drawing on what was known about and said by those who committed self-immolation, he pointed out that there was no evidence of depression and despair; that on the contrary, available personal information on those committing self-immolation, though certainly not complete, indicated that the actions were undertaken as acts of strong-willed political defiance and resistance.
If exiles interpreted the acts according to their own circumstances so too did several liberal Chinese writing in cyberspace. There the assumption was that the Tibetans who committed self-immolation were uselessly trying to awaken the consciences of those in authority to the depths of misery inside Tibet. One example is this comment: “Any self-immolation can only illustrate the self-immolator’s clinging to a fantasy of the authorities’ ultimate goodwill.” This was also reflected in some of the early commentary from outside Tibet which held that these actions wasted human lives for nothing; that they were, moreover, fundamentally un-Buddhist. On that point one Tibetan exile spokesperson asserted his agreement with a Chinese commentator in the People’s Daily who had denounced the self-immolators as un-Buddhist. This sentiment in turn lead some to advocate that the Dalai Lama call for a halt to such actions. This, of course, was something that would have put him in an awkward position. Were he to call for such a halt to no effect, it might have implications for his unofficial authority. Were he effective he would provide fodder for Chinese claims that he pulls the strings of protest in Tibet. Another well-respected lama, the Karma-pa, did in November 2011 publicly call for an end to self-immolations, but they continued. He has not reiterated that appeal. After resisting appeals that she call for an end to self-immolation, stating that such calls would not alleviate the causes of self-immolation, the influential writer Tsering Woeser, while continuing to maintain respect for those who had committed such actions, also called for a halt to further acts after a widowed mother committed self-immolation on 4 March 2012 leaving behind four orphaned children. Nevertheless, acts of self-immolations have not stopped.
The Chinese writer Wang Lixiong, who has sought to articulate a way for Tibetan protests to move beyond self-immolation, has stated that the self-immolations have indeed been effective: they have galvanized Tibetan sentiments and greatly strengthened the Tibetan sense of unity in the face of rule by China. This reflects a far clearer understanding of the situation than ideas of Tibetan self-immolation as a futile attempt to move bureaucratic hearts in China or as an act of hopeless despair, rooted as they are, in their advocates’ parochial projections. (Of course, it should go without saying that, contrary to what is believed in some circles, Tibet and the Tibet issue do not occupy the thoughts of most people in China.) In the face of wide, positive sympathy and support in Tibet for those who have committed self-immolation, the “un-Buddhist” critique has not gained traction. One anonymous Tibetan blog comment is perhaps more typical of the way self-immolation has come to be viewed inside Tibet; certainly more typical than the projections of other observers might lead one to believe: “Might I ask if we, who scream when we scrape our hands even slightly, would have the guts to sacrifice our lives for the cause of freedom?… Yes, when I think of the heroes and heroines who have committed self-immolation I am ashamed of my inherent weakness, cowardice and uselessness.”
Both Wang Lixiong and Tsering Woeser have called for Tibetans to move beyond self-immolation as a tactic. At the same time, neither has denigrated those who have committed such acts, let alone characterized them as acting contrary to Buddhist principles. But in a milieu effectively bereft of civil-society options for organizing peaceful protest and dissent it has been difficult to conceive of a viable alternate tactic. Self-immolation is a solitary, individual act of protest that can be undertaken in an instant with little chance for the authorities to prevent it, or to shut out the protester’s message. An end to the current wave of self-immolations will likely require an alternative tactic capable of comparable effect or the ceding of adequate space for dissent on the part of the authorities.
1 April 2012
LINKS

For assertions that self-immolation goes against Buddhist tenets or is a waste of life see:

http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/belief/2011/oct/19/china-tibetans-self-immolation?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487
For an assertion that self-immolation in Tibet is a futile attempt to awaken official consciences see:
http://lhakardiaries.com/2011/10/19/how-about-some-r-e-s-p-e-c-t/ (Scroll down to the author's comment after the post.)

For the comments on sacrifice and cowardice see:

http://woeser.middle-way.net/2011/12/blog-post_29.html


2012年5月12日星期六

凯大熊(Kevin Carrico):中国官方媒体的描绘



作者:Kevin Carrico(凯大熊),康奈尔大学人类学系
译者:黄潇潇  @xiaoxiaom
文章来源:《文化人类学》(Cultural Anthropology)学刊特刊
标题:Chinese State Media Representations
时间: 2012年3月28日
原文网址:http://culanth.org/?q=node/531

上一次图伯特/西藏的大规模抗议在2008年春天爆发时,中国中央电视台向观众滚动播放拉萨出现的“打砸抢烧”(原注汉语拼音:da za qiang shao)。画面上的藏人暴动者掀翻警车,投掷石块,殴打路人,焚烧中国国旗,同时还有仔细剪辑过的武警受伤或躲在防暴盾牌之后的景象。


我不仅在事件刚发生就看到电视上将其作为新闻播报,还看到之后数月内,这些画面被无端反复重播,甚至集结成DVD在街头售卖。三年后我在中国都市地区做民族关系的田野调查时,发现这些画面已经铭刻在集体意识里。



这些铺天盖地的画面可以说形成了前所未有的媒体宣传攻势,旨在巩固西藏问题上的官方立场。它们为一个强加于复杂事件的简单叙述提供了看似不容否定的视觉证据:无理取闹、凶残暴力的“西藏分裂者”,突然毫无来由地向那些一心只想要“帮助西藏发展”的汉人居民施以残酷暴行。在这种描绘下,抗议的根源就必须从西藏以外寻找(即“达赖集团”the Dalai clique),或者完全归因于据称抗议者混乱的头脑(即“流氓”),以确保不从历史积怨或当前被占领下的社会政治背景中寻找到起源。

此举形成一种脱离背景的受害形象与道德胜利形象的叙述。该叙述置身于历史和政治的真空中,把“中国”描绘成“暴力分裂者”的猛攻和西方媒体“有色眼镜”下的双重靶子。假如人类历史曾证明过什么,那就是,简化的叙述极具吸引力:这在2008年又得到证实,当时“I ♥ China”的标志迅速传播,简直覆盖了互联网、公共空间,甚至个人身体,成为当年春夏季最畅销的T恤衫。

与这种疯狂的图像播放相比,对于近期藏地一系列自焚事件,官方媒体的反应最异乎寻常之处就是其相对沉默。尽管这些抗议持续时间长,性质严重,相关报道却很少,即便有,往往也很笨拙。哪怕是以坦率发表国家民族主义观点而闻名的《环球时报》(原注汉语拼音:Huanqiu shibao),看来也找不到适当言词描述最近的事件,该报在一篇离奇的社论中声称:“不必为小骚乱操心(No need to sweat over minor unrest)”。越来越擅长将一切事件纳入官方话语的国家媒体,此时却似乎骤然语塞。

因为2008年的事件有潜力被简化成“忘恩负义、暴力的藏人”和“愚蠢的西方人”这种国家民族主义式的叙述,使得当年春夏季就该事件展开了近乎强迫式的讨论。相比之下,最近这一系列自焚事件却让持各种立场的人都哑口无言。自焚是非常公开的抗议行为,其所传达的含义极不容易被改造。这样的行为不会屈从于简化的叙述,反而强迫这种叙述改造自身;它们传达出极大的苦难,让辩驳徒劳无功。那些Anti-CNN(四月网式的攻击,如官方网站“中国西藏网”(Tibet.cn)最近引用匿名“网友”表达他们希望达赖喇嘛自焚的观点,相形之下就卑劣已极。当别人在引火自焚时,这种回应只有失败。

落伍的政治与文化控制依然在中国和西藏大行其道,一个常被援引的理由是,普通国民的“文化低”(原注汉语拼音:wenhua di)。但在Twitter等超越审查的平台上进行的对话显示,这种宣称不过是政府及其支持者老一套的自我麻痹。然而,即使将此话当真,一个问题仍然存在:这所谓的“文化低”,会不会正是持续占据官方媒体的简化叙述之产物,而不是其存在的正当理由呢?当官方媒体把达赖喇嘛与希特勒相比时,人们可能会问,究竟什么才是“文化低”?

中国官方媒体对当前图伯特/西藏形势的回应,其彻底扭曲之处就在于:人们可以在官方网站上找到希望达赖喇嘛自焚的公开言论,却需要翻越坚固的防火墙,才能获得近期图伯特/西藏事件中哪怕最基本的信息,而公开讨论要么已被屏蔽,要么已被随意删除。简化的官方叙述向来是对中国和西藏民众的伤害,但最近数月的悲剧程度之深,已将这些叙述的本质暴露无疑:它们使人难堪,以至于在一种又一种说辞中碰壁的政府及其喉舌,似乎也已经含蓄地承认。


Chinese State Media Representations
Kevin Carrico, Department of Anthropology, Cornell University
When the last major uprising in Tibet occurred in the spring of 2008, viewers of China Central Television were treated to repeat screenings of the “smashing, beating, looting, and burning (da za qiang shao)” in Lhasa. Images showed Tibetan rioters overturning police cars, throwing rocks, beating passersby, and burning PRC flags alongside carefully edited images of military police reliably injured or hiding behind riot shields.

I watched while these images were not only broadcast as news soon after they occurred, but were then gratuitously rebroadcast over the months that followed and even sold en masse in DVD format on the streets. And during fieldwork on ethnic relations in urban China three years later, I found that this imagery remained engraved in the collective conscious.








This onslaught of images constituted an arguably unprecedented media campaign to consolidate the official line on Tibet. It provided seemingly irrefutable visual proof of a simple narrative imposed upon complex events: irrational, violent, and threatening “Tibetan separatists” suddenly and seemingly out of nowhere unleashed senseless violence against Han residents interested only in “helping Tibet develop.” Within this presentation, the source of protests had to be found either outside of Tibet proper (i.e., “the Dalai clique”) or solely inside the purportedly troubled minds of protestors (i.e., “hooligans”), so as to ensure that they not be found in historical grievances or the current sociopolitical context of occupation. 
The result was a decontextualized narrative of victimhood and moral victory, located in a historical and political vacuum, which presented “China” as the dual target of an onslaught by “violent separatists” and the “biased” gaze of the Western media. And if the history of humankind has proven anything, it is that simple narratives have appeal: this was proven yet again in 2008 by the rapid spread of the “I ♥ China” meme, which literally blanketed the Internet, public spaces, and even individual bodies as a top-selling t-shirt that spring and summer.
In contrast to this frenzied broadcast of images, the most striking characteristic of the state media response to the recent series of self-immolations in Tibetan regions has been its relative silence. Despite the length of these protests and the gravity of the events at hand, reports have been rare, and when they have appeared, they have generally been quite clumsy. Even the Global Times (Huanqiu shibao), known for its characteristically outspoken state-nationalist viewpoint, seems to have stumbled in search of words to characterize recent events, claiming in an odd editorial that there is “no need to sweat over minor unrest.”  The state media, increasingly adept at incorporating all types of events into official discourses, appears to be at a sudden loss for words.
The ability of the events of 2008 to be harnessed to a simplistic state-nationalist discourse of “ungrateful, violent Tibetans” and “silly Westerners” made it an almost obsessive object of discussion that spring and summer. By contrast, the recent series of self-immolations leave everyone, no matter one’s position, at a loss for words. They are immensely public acts of protest that communicate a meaning not at all easy to remold. These acts do not yield to simple narratives but instead compel narratives themselves to yield; they are a suffering that makes counterarguments futile. Attempts to put an anti-CNN-spin on events, such as the recent state-run website Tibet.cn’s decision to cite anonymous “netizens” expressing their hopes that the Dalai Lama might self-immolate, appear immensely petty by comparison. When people are setting themselves on fire, such responses simply fail.
A commonly cited reason for the perpetuation of anachronistic political and cultural control in today’s China and Tibet is the purportedly “low cultural level” (wenhua di) of the average citizen. Dialogues on Twitter and elsewhere beyond the control of censors suggest that such claims are predictably nothing but patronizing self-rationalization by the state and its supporters. Yet if we were to take this claim at face value, a question nevertheless remains: could this supposed “low culture” be a product of, rather than a justification for, the continued simplistic narratives that dominate the state media? When state media is comparing the Dalai Lama to Hitler one might ask what, after all, qualifies as “low culture"?
This is the fundamental perversion of the Chinese state response to the current situation in Tibet: one can find open wishes to set the Dalai Lama on fire on a state-run website, yet one must scale an unrelenting firewall in order to obtain even the most basic information about recent events in Tibet, and open discussion is either blocked or casually erased. Simplistic state narratives have always been a disservice to the people of China and Tibet, but the scale of tragedy in recent months has laid bare these narratives for what they are: an embarrassment, to a point that even the state and its mouthpieces, stumbling over one rationalization after another, appear to have implicitly acknowledged.
28 March 2012

2012年5月10日星期四

三位自焚藏人(朗卓、曲帕嘉、索南)的照片、遗书、遗嘱……


今年2月19日,18岁的藏人朗卓自焚牺牲;今年4月19日,二十多岁的藏人曲帕嘉和索南自焚牺牲。他们都是安多壤塘(今四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州壤塘县)人。

他们的生前照片、写下的遗言及录音的遗嘱,于5月9日、10日被流亡西藏媒体报道(Phayul网站、挪威西藏之声藏人行政中央官方网站)。并出现于YouTube(见上),整整9分多钟,其中有他们自焚时的录像,惨不忍睹。周遭藏人无论男女悲凄地念诵佛经、祈求尊者达赖喇嘛的护佑,这火焰吞噬肉体的场景将深深地烙印在当地藏人的记忆之中!

三位自焚藏人写下的遗书和录音的遗嘱已被译为英文和中文。在刚刚看到译文时,我在Twitter上公开建议流亡西藏:
请将三位藏人的遗言完整无误地翻译为中文和英文,最好是藏中英三种文字一并发表。CCTV歪曲藏人自焚的外宣片都做了至少六种文字的版本,单就这一方式,应该向其学习。
中国中央电视台CCTV将其精心制作的专题片《达赖集团与自焚暴力事件》,最近在CCTV的英语频道、法语频道、西班牙频道、阿拉伯语频道、俄语频道,以及针对海外华人的国际频道播出,无外乎就是想诬陷自焚藏人是“恐怖分子”,藏人自焚是暴力、是“达赖集团”操控的,以抵消藏人自焚实际上是对中共压迫的抗议。

因此,自焚藏人生前写下的遗书、录音的遗嘱是非常、非常重要的证据。目前,已经披露于世的有这6位自焚藏人留下的遗书、遗嘱:2011年12月1日在西藏自治区昌都县自焚的丁增朋措、2012年1月8日在青海省果洛州达日县自焚的索巴仁波切、2012年3月26日在印度新德里自焚的江白益西,以及最新披露的壤塘三藏人朗卓、曲帕嘉和索南。

流亡西藏那么多机构和组织,人才济济,将这些所有的藏文遗书和藏语遗嘱翻译中文和英文,应该是完全不成问题的。将自焚藏人为了抗议难以忍受的政治压迫、宗教压迫、民族压迫而决意自焚的心声传达给世界,让世人了解到藏人何以如此决绝地自焚赴死,应该是活着的藏人必须做的事情。

与其将滔滔不绝的空话浪费在“希望能够同新一届中国领导人重启藏中对话”上,更为重要的是不辜负自焚藏人的心愿,而这首先表现在——请将他们在自焚前亲手写下的遗书、亲口朗读并录音的遗嘱,清清楚楚地、一字不差地转达给世界吧。

念念不忘【自焚藏人】25、朗卓:安多壤塘(今四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州壤塘县中壤塘乡)人,18岁。2012年2月19日自焚。当场牺牲,后由藏人火葬。他在自焚前写下遗书:“ 无法在其恶法下续留,无法容忍没有伤痕的折磨……

念念不忘【自焚藏人】37、曲帕嘉:安多壤塘(今四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州壤塘县中壤塘乡)人,学生,25岁。2012年4月19日在觉囊派壤塘大寺附近与堂兄弟索南同时但不同地点自焚,牺牲。后由藏人僧俗将他隆重火葬。他俩在自焚前录音遗嘱:“我们藏民族没有最基本人权的痛苦比我俩自焚的痛苦还要大……”

念念不忘【自焚藏人】38、索南:安多壤塘(今四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州壤塘县中壤塘乡)人,学生,24岁。2012年4月19日在觉囊派壤塘大寺附近与堂兄弟曲帕嘉同时但不同地点自焚,牺牲。后由藏人僧俗将他隆重火葬。他俩在自焚前录音遗嘱:“我们藏民族没有最基本人权的痛苦比我俩自焚的痛苦还要大……”。

以下两张图片即为三位自焚藏人的遗书和遗嘱。图1是朗卓写下的遗书。图2是曲帕嘉和索南录音的遗嘱被整理为藏文。图片转自Facebook:


三位自焚藏人的遗书和遗嘱已被完完整整地译为中文。在这里,我转载的是藏人行政中央官方网站公布的中文译文(对个别标点符号,我做了修改,并对朗卓的遗书做了分行)。

——朗卓写下的遗书(其实是一首诗):
昂起你坚强的头,为朗卓之尊严。
我那厚恩的父母、亲爱的兄弟及亲属,我即将要离世。
为恩惠无量的藏人,我将点燃躯体。
藏民族的儿女们,我的希望就是,你们要团结一致。
若你是藏人要穿藏装,并要讲藏语,勿忘自己是藏人;
若是藏人要有慈悲之心,要爱戴父母,要民族团结,要怜悯旁生,珍惜动物生命。
祈愿(嘉瓦丹增嘉措)达赖喇嘛尊者永久住世。
祈愿雪域西藏的高僧大德们永久住世。
祈愿藏民族脱离汉魔。在汉人魔掌下藏人非常痛苦,这痛苦难以忍受。
此汉魔强占藏地,此汉魔强抓藏人,无法在其恶法下续留,无法容忍没有伤痕的折磨。
此汉魔无慈悲心,残害藏人生命。
祈愿(嘉瓦丹增嘉措)达赖喇嘛尊者永久住世! 
——曲帕嘉、索南录音的遗嘱:
藏民族是有着与众不同的宗教和文化、慈悲和善良、有利他之心的民族,但是,藏民族受到中国的侵略、镇压和欺骗。我们是为了藏民族没有基本人权的痛苦和实现世界和平而点火自焚的,我们藏民族没有最基本人权的痛苦比我俩自焚的痛苦还要大。 
在这世上最厚恩的父母和家人和深爱的兄弟姐妹们,我俩不是没有考虑你们感受,和你们生死别离是迟早的事,也不是不珍惜自己的生命。而是我俩志同道合地为了藏民族得到自由、佛法昌盛和众生能够获得幸福,以及世界和平而点火自焚的。 
但是你们要按照我俩的遗愿行事,如果我俩落入汉人的手中,你们不要做任何无畏的牺牲,我俩不愿任何人为此而受到伤害,如能这样则是我俩的心愿。如果你们为了我俩而伤心,那就听从学者和上师大德的话,学习文化不要迷途,对本族要情同手足,要努力学习本民族的的文化,并团结一致,如能这样则是我俩的心愿,按照遗愿行事是我俩由衷的愿望。
最后要说的是,从目前所有关于自焚藏人的照片和视频来看,画面都不清晰,并非精心准备的产物,而更像是仓促间的拍摄记录。在整个藏地,手机使用是很广泛的,我们可以从录像中看到,现场有不少人拿出手机在拍摄。

拍摄者以及将这些照片和录像送出藏地的人们是冒着巨大风险的。2009年2月27日阿坝僧人扎白自焚时,曾有僧人江廓拍下两张照片,后被判刑6年,至今在狱中。2011年3月16日阿坝僧人彭措自焚之后,被族人救下,也有摄像和拍照,而记录者也遭当局重判。所以,每位拍摄者都是冒着危险在记录,每位拍摄者都是与这个暴政顽强斗争的英雄!如果没有录像、没有照片等证据,自焚藏人的牺牲就不会为世人所知,自焚藏人的牺牲就会被这个罪恶当局抵赖、抹杀,自焚藏人的牺牲就会失去其牺牲的价值!

而每位拍摄者也是怀着巨大的痛苦在记录自焚藏人的牺牲。从以上的YouTube视频中,就能听到拍摄者一边记录一边悲怆地祈祷。

唯色,写于2012年5月10日


2012年5月9日星期三

从CCTV外宣片中看到自焚后的扎白


中国中央电视台CCTV于2012年5月7日凌晨2时20分,在其英语新闻台播出41分钟的专题片《达赖集团与自焚暴力事件》。并在5月8日,在CCTV的法语频道、西班牙频道、阿拉伯语频道、俄语频道,各三次播出。

但只通过卫星电视播出,而不通过网络播出,也即是说,中国网络电视台并没有转播这个专题片。而且目前,CCTV也没有像2008年隆重推出、反复播放专题片《拉萨打砸抢烧暴力事件纪实》那样,对中国国内的观众隆重推出、反复播放这部关于藏人自焚的中文版专题片。

显然,这部专题片《达赖集团与自焚暴力事件》是精心制作的外宣片,即对外宣传片。藏学家Elliot Sperling一针见血地评说:“藏人自焚事件变成了对国外宣传的战线。可能当局对国内很放心。这个非城市公民社会里的公民往往只为自己的情况不好才动手。他们愿意听政府宣传,愿意相信达赖喇嘛是农奴集团的首领,被解放的博弥(藏人)白痴不懂得感恩等等。”“对于外国人而言,只有那些本来就相信中国宣传的人会相信这些宣传,而客观的和诚实的人都知道表达异见的看法被镇压了。”

很遗憾,我到现在还没看到这部外宣片,只是在Facebook上看到海外藏人录下来的数分钟片断,并从看过电视的朋友那里了解到整个片子的内容。为此我在Twitter上写了:“脸书上看到CCTV那部歪说藏人自焚外宣片的一些片断,不外乎是当年污名化、妖魔化法轮功的手法故伎重演。没有用的。即便是让幸存的自焚藏人或自焚藏人的亲属表态,也无济于事。自焚者是藏民族的英雄,土共再泼污水也没用。”

正如一位流亡藏人Sakar Tashi在Facebook上的留言:“感谢中国中央电视台CCTV的41分钟专题片,让我获益匪浅。通过你们的杰作专题片我第一次拜见了西藏境内第一位自焚者扎白自焚后的容颜,很庆幸为西藏的自由事业而自焚的勇士扎白还活着,在你们的‘善待’下活着。他的这个自焚后的容颜会刻在境内外每一个西藏人的心上。我希望也期待你们的专题片能用中文和藏文在国内大力宣传让汉藏民众有幸目睹每一位为了自由西藏而自焚的勇士们的容颜以及你们‘善待’自焚者的近况。拜托了。”

是的,扎白——图伯特(西藏)境内第一位自焚者——在自焚后的状况被这部外宣片精心编辑、公诸于众。而藏人们纷纷转发、分享从CCTV录制的画面,头一句话都是:“扎白还活着!”

我在一份记录38位自焚藏人(从2009年2月27日扎白自焚至2012年4月19日曲帕嘉和索南自焚)的名单中,对扎白的短短记录是:
念念不忘【自焚藏人】1、扎白(法名洛桑扎西):安多阿坝(今四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州阿坝县)格尔登寺僧人,20岁。2009年2月27日自焚。遭军警枪击,重伤,被军警强行带走。只知已残,更多情况不明。

还有,我在今年2月13日写的文章《记西藏境内第一位自焚的扎白》中,就所了解到的自焚后的扎白状况写过:
我采访过两位格尔登寺的僧人,在了解到平措(2011年3月16日自焚并牺牲的格尔登寺僧人,又写彭措)生平的时候,也了解到扎白的一些情况。实际上扎白的名字是洛桑扎西,这是他出家为僧之后获得的法名,而扎白是俗名,自焚时,年为20岁。家人中,母亲叫梅廓,45岁;还有27岁的哥哥策波,18岁的妹妹才让吉。 
扎白先是被带到阿坝县人民医院,后又被带到成都华西医科大学医院。因为腿和右臂中弹,他的腿已残,走路不便,右臂也抬不起来。又因被火焚烧过,脸颊和右臂留下大片疤痕。据说当时医院企图截肢,截掉中弹的腿与右臂,为的是不留下中枪的痕迹,以毁灭证据,但被他的母亲拼死拒绝,才得以留住。2011年初,他在阿坝州州府马尔康的军队医院,与母亲在一起。既不允许出院,也不允许除舅舅之外的亲人和寺院僧人去探望。谁也不知道他何时才能出院,而在藏地连续发生这么多起自焚之后,扎白是不是还在那所军队医院,更是谁也不知道。  

那么,依据以上从CCTV播出的这部外宣片中录制的有关扎白的画面(来自Facebook),可以看见扎白的面颊和头颅的右边、双臂、双腿都是伤痕累累。双臂和双腿萎缩。尤其是右手腕关节异常肿大。当然,从有限的镜头中,我们无法看出中弹的痕迹,因为只要被遮住,就不可能看见。另外,外宣片中还出现了扎白的母亲MEVGO(梅廓)。

在外宣片中,扎白说了什么,听不清楚。因为CCTV的解说声音立即覆盖了扎白的声音。但无论扎白说了什么,在这个CCTV制作的外宣片中,都必然会被剪切成CCTV所需要的话。


然而,甚为珍贵的是,这部外宣片还提供了一小段扎白自焚时的现场录像,应该是整个阿坝县无处不在的监控摄像头拍摄的,大约七或八秒。身上燃烧着火焰的绛红色僧人——扎白——从容地走着,双手摊开。从他的左右后侧跑来几个黑衣人:左边一人,似乎手里端着什么东西,跑的时候也一直是端着的;右边四至六人,越来越多。这些黑衣人应该都是警察或特警。

这七至八秒的现场录像应该得到专业人士的分析。比如扎白左边那个手里端着什么东西在跑的人。比如,在第四秒的时候,身上冒着火焰的扎白靠近一辆白色的警车时,突然那里升腾起一大团白色的烟雾,而扎白从白色烟雾中踉跄奔出,这段现场录像戛然而止,画面切换到一座寺院(应该是格尔登寺)的外观。

而我们曾在2009年3月间,见到过两张自焚后的扎白仆倒在地的照片。扎白的身上已无火焰,但穿的袈裟多处被烧得破损。在扎白的周围,竟有多达16人的特警(黑衣人)及便衣(灰衣人和红衣人),这些特警至少3人手里端着警用防暴枪,一人手握类似警棍的武器。而扎白完全不能动弹。有目击者说,自焚中的扎白当时遭到警察枪击。但新华社否认扎白自焚时被警察枪击。


那么,扎白是否被枪击了呢?我曾采访到的两位格尔登寺的僧人都说,扎白的腿和右臂中弹。通过现场照片看,围拢扎白的特警手里拿的是警用防暴枪,据说警用防暴枪一般是用来发射催泪瓦斯,也配有散弹、橡皮子弹和普通子弹。2008年全藏地抗议发生之后,从成都附近调往四川省甘孜州的特警中,就有特警将他举着新式防暴枪的照片贴在网上,得意洋洋地写到:“百米内,可以一枪打爆暴徒的头”。这说明,这种枪对人是有巨大杀伤力的。

而且,我知道,扎白自焚之后被警察枪击,以及彭措自焚之后被警察毒打,被军警强行带走之后的自焚藏人或身亡或被截肢,全都一去不归,这样的残酷消息已传遍藏地许多地方,所以,后来的藏人在自焚时大都非常决绝,不仅在衣服上洒满汽油等燃油,甚至喝下大量汽油等燃油。也有藏人在自焚后先被送往医院,后被族人们冒着被捕判刑的危险从医院抢回,在自己家中疗伤,为的是免遭那样的生不如死的折磨。

拍下这两张现场照片并将照片通过电邮发给外界的格尔登寺僧人江廓,后来被当局查出下落,遭判刑6年,现在还在牢狱中受苦。

最后,更重要的是,CCTV的这部外宣片所展示的自焚后的扎白在医院治疗的场景,以及扎白及扎白的母亲接受采访的场景,究竟是什么时候拍摄的?扎白是2009年2月27日自焚的,而这些场景是拍摄于2009年当年?还是拍摄于2010年或2011年?

想必不会拍摄于今年,即2012年。因为我在今年2月初得知,中国当局早已制作了关于藏人自焚的宣传片,宣称自焚是“达赖分裂集团”策划的,并在藏地一些地方放映过,要求寺院和各乡村、学校派代表观看、批判。其中据说就有对扎白的一段采访,但不知道是否与外宣片中的采访相同。

所以我们并不知道扎白现在的状况如何。去年3月16日,与扎白同一座寺院的僧人彭措自焚并牺牲,是继扎白自焚之后的第二起自焚。迄今总共发生38起境内外藏人自焚事件(境内35起,境外3起),其中28人牺牲,15人当场牺牲,12人被军警强行带走之后身亡,1人在印度新德里医院重伤不治牺牲。

另有6人至今在当局手中。其中3人身残,除扎白外,他们是2011年9月26日自焚的格尔登寺僧人洛桑贡确(据悉四肢被截肢)、2012年2月8日自焚的称多县拉布寺僧人索南热央(据悉右腿被截肢);3人情况不明,他们是:2011年9月26日的格尔登寺僧人洛桑格桑、2011年10月3日自焚的格尔登寺僧人格桑旺久、2012年2月13日自焚的格尔登寺僧人洛桑嘉措。

而在CCTV播出的这部外宣片中,除扎白外,我们还看到了自焚后被军警强行带走的格尔登寺僧人洛桑格桑和洛桑贡确。洛桑格桑是自焚牺牲的僧人彭措的弟弟,在外宣片中他的名字被写为“SKAL RING”。洛桑贡确在外宣片中被写为“KUNCHOK DAINBA”,只看见他仰躺在病床上的头部画面,而身体的其他部位如四肢并未出现,那么是真的被截肢了吗?



虽然CCTV外宣片中出现了自焚后的扎白、洛桑格桑和洛桑贡确的画面,然而鉴于以自焚表达抗议的藏人们已被中国当局定性为“恐怖分子”,因此我们有理由担心最先自焚的扎白目前状况完全不明的处境,担心尚在中国当局手中的另外5位藏人目前状况完全不明的处境。

三年前,我曾在纪念扎白的文章中写过:“这可能是境内藏人第一次以自焚的方式来表明心志。西藏的历史必须铭记扎白,就像铭记1998年,在印度德里举行的绝食抗议中国的活动中,点火自焚的流亡僧人图丹欧珠。不同的是,扎白当场遭到中共军警的枪击。从2008年3月之后就布满县城和寺院的军警,朝着燃烧的扎白射出了子弹。”今天,此刻,我仍然要念诵这段文字,并为扎白祈祷,向扎白顶礼!并为其他可能还活着的自焚藏人祈祷,向他们顶礼!

唯色,2012年5月9日深夜


补充(写于5月10日1:28)——

1、得知,CCTV于2012年5月7日凌晨2时20分,在其英语新闻台播出专题片《达赖集团与自焚暴力事件》英文版时,在其国际频道4台播出了该专题片的中文版。显然,此外宣片包括对海外华人的宣传。

2、我已经看到了这部外宣片,是朋友发来的对英文版的录像,果然有很多非常宝贵的原始资料。不过我还惊讶地看到了片中出现了我的博客页面,是被当作敌对势力来展示的:http://woeser.middle-way.net/2011/03/blog-post_17.html

3、在Twitter上,曾当兵多年的推友 @Zhangga3分析了CCTV展示的自焚后的扎白伤势,以及我博客上扎白自焚后被16位警察包围的现场照片,回复推文如下:

这种防暴枪一般用来发射催泪瓦斯,在正常使用时是不能打死或者打伤人的。但是中国为了追求声音大,里面的炸药放的超量了。这枪出口到泰国以后,打死了人,示威者说泰国政府使用了致命武器,泰国政府说没有,从中国买来的时候说打不死人。 
这种枪一般配有散弹,催泪弹,橡皮子弹和你说的威力巨大的普通弹药。然而,这是一种滑膛枪,普通弹药虽然威力较大,但很少使用,因为命中率比普通步枪和手枪差远了…… 
这种枪弹留下的痕迹与一般枪弹不同,一般枪弹是瓦壶形,枪弹创面较小,在身体内形成巨大空腔,而这种子弹往往会产生较大的枪弹创面 
但是如果真的近距离被这种枪击中,那么将是极其痛苦的。。。。 
我个人认为,当然我不是法医,扎白的肌肉萎缩很可能是散弹造成的

2012年5月8日星期二

雷伊·桑斯特(Leigh Sangster):图像的来世



作者:Leigh Sangster(雷伊·桑斯特),梅杰巴达学院(Maitripa College)
译者:傅春雨 @boattractor_cj
文章来源:《文化人类学》(Cultural Anthropology)学刊特刊
标题:The Afterlife of Images
时间:2012328

自焚能吸引对其诉求的关注和争取支持,部分原因在于其震撼人心的视觉图像。[1]似乎每天都有藏人自焚或与其相关的图像出现并在网上流传,尤其是有关过去六个月以来连续的自焚事件,到目前为止总数已达三十三起之多。[2]然而,颇让人意外的是,自2009年以来,截止于2012年藏历新年之后,仅有七起记录自焚或事后情形的照片、录像在图伯特/西藏之外被公布[3]国际媒体只有在这些图像被公布之后才开始转播报道。与自焚、抗议、悼念有关的原始录像和图片,以及记者设法秘密记录的资料,先是被偷偷带出西藏,在藏人的网站、新闻媒体和组织团体的网站上发表,然后才被全球各种媒体所引用并报道。

甘孜藏族自治州道孚35岁的尼师班丹曲措在2011311日(译注:原文如此,据唯色博客,应为2011113)的自焚以及她的葬礼是记录最详尽的事件。一段最初镜头有些晃动的录像是这样开始的,被烈火吞噬的班丹曲措纹丝不动地站立街边。能听到有呼喊的声音。一位身着藏人传统服装的妇女手持洁白的长哈达,从旁边的人行道走向街边。当她抬臂将哈达掷向烈焰时,班丹曲措跌倒在地。这段录像到此为止。

班丹曲措的自焚还被从临街二楼的窗口拍摄录像。这段录像成像不太清晰,开始时现场有十几位藏人朝班丹曲措匍匐在地的遗体周围迅速聚集,她的遗体僵直,还燃着火,四肢扭曲地伸离地面。聚拢的人群大约有几圈。人群中一位僧人从一个塑料袋中取出一张宽大的黄布,来回走动以等待火苗减小到他可以接近。当他站住准备以黄布遮盖尼师的遗体,这时几条洁白的哈达像飘带似地飞向尼师仍在燃烧的遗体。(然后)摄像机调整角度对准在人群外缘的一位拿着长木条的藏人;他(以木条为栏)阻挡试图进入藏人圈、冲向尼师的六七名警察。这段录像到此为止。另有两段几秒钟的录像小片段,都显示了存放于一座寺院内的班丹曲措焦黑的遗体,为洁白的哈达所环绕;其中一段聚焦特写了她身旁有烧损痕迹的达赖喇嘛和另一位喇嘛(唯色注:这位喇嘛是噶玛巴仁波切)的小幅合影;另一段推测那天上午她曾随身携带这帧照片。其它录像片段显示上千藏人在夜晚带着哈达和酥油灯排队悼念、诵经,聚集在寺院的大堂上哭泣。这些有关班丹曲措的录像总共仅有五分钟,却讲述了难以想象的故事。第一段录像的一张截图,即班丹曲措站立着被火焰包裹的那张,被西方媒体的许多文章用作插图,这个画面也和其它画面一道被汇编入藏人制作的纪录片中,在网上或者以其它方式广为流传。[4]


1. 2011113日自焚的尼师班丹曲措(路透社)。

而另一些录像和照片则是曝光警力部署以及记录对和平抗议的镇压,揭露了中国政府的恐吓和武力炫耀。[5]一些显示枪伤的照片,据说是警察部队朝人群开枪所致,非常小心地从画面上略去了脸部以保护伤者和救助者的身份,救治的地方是在家里而非医院。[6]


2.警察拖走一位据告在色达和平抗议时被射杀的抗议者。[7]


3. 2012123日在康章戈(即炉霍县)被中国警察开枪击中的藏人。[8]

目击者们也有意识地拍下了严重受伤和死去藏人的焦黑躯体,这类照片通常是在寺院或家里拍下,其中包括像索巴仁波切(年格·索南竹杰)这样广受爱戴的宗教领袖。丹增旺姆尼师的照片显示她焦黑的遗体躺在绿草地上,还冒着烟,几位身着绛红色尼袍的尼师们正在奔向她们的姊妹。这类照片成了证实、阐明事件的重要影视资料,在网上可以见得到,一般都附有小心慎入的提示;但这类图像通常不会出现在西方和藏人的(主流)媒体中。这种图像既太恐怖可怕,也缺乏生动的视觉冲击力,而且有损逝者尊严,可能会把注意力吸引到他们的命运,而非他们的行为(诉求)。


4. 尼师丹增旺姆,20111017日(藏人妇女联合会提供)。

于是,全球的藏人活动人士更宁愿使用网上流传的自焚现场图像和自焚者平时的肖像,制作图像资料来传播——在博客、脸书(Facebook)和油管(YouTube)上张帖 ;在从印度到华盛顿特区的游行和悼念活动中,藏人们手举着图像标语牌;甚至以模拟重演(自焚的场景)的方式来传播这些图像。[9]例如,一段为纪念而制作的录像是由自焚者的肖像以幻灯片编辑而成,背景配音是西藏民族主义歌曲和摇滚歌曲,还有首席部长洛桑森格博士的讲话,以及索巴仁波切的录音遗嘱。这些肖像被转化成数码模式,或单张使用,或以(自焚的)时间顺序拼成方格图,配以多种文字解说,[10]并加上“自由英灵”或“民族英魂”这样的标题。[11]无疑的,流亡组织希望鼓动、激励藏人,同时也争取外界的同情,呼吁政治支持。


5. 糌粑革命(TsampaRevolution)列出的自焚者资料,201235日。


图6. 在台北的藏人抗议者手举宣传广告纪念自焚者。(华尔街日报2011年10月19日)

最近几个月,我在许多场合看到过这样的图像,并在我的脑海里一次又一次地重复回放。一边是具体的一个个生命,另一边是这些生命所代表的整体诉求和回响,我的心在二者之间痛苦挣扎。看到这些图像使得个体的生命更加真实,也促使我想更全面地了解二者所分别体现的内涵:即特殊的具体情形(虔诚的僧尼、丧夫的母亲、贫困的牧民)和非常强烈的诉求(恳求文化包容,吁请达赖喇嘛回归,要求言论和宗教自由,争取独立)。藏人社会称颂这些牺牲的个体,尽管伴随这些图像所描述的每一桩行动,这些个体的数量都在增加;尽管每一个生命的损失都给藏人社会带来真切的悲伤,(12)甚至自焚人数统计不精确就会引起很大的悲愤。(13)

尽管如此,自焚所产生的紧迫感和忧虑在图伯特/西藏和流亡社会带来了强调团结的民族精神。个体的行动转变成了一场群体运动,而这场运动的召集动员中心正是这些蔓延、传播的图像。这图像产生于个体微弱的自我表达,通过流传而变成了一场全球性的抗议中国的象征。

这些图像及其不同的运用向我们揭示了图伯特/西藏内部的什么情形?我们应当怎样来思考传播和关注这些图像——这些着火燃烧,被殴打,或者被枪杀的人们的躯体的图像——的道德和政治含义?我不禁想到苏珊·桑塔格(Susan Sontag)就他人痛苦的有关思考,她确信除非我们设身处地经历之,我们绝无可能理解作为受难者在其处境中的感受。14简而言之,在道义上我们唯一的当务之急,就是不能变得对我们周遭的痛苦麻木不仁。我们希望这些图像能产生(同情的)行动,然而正如过去十多年来在伊拉克和阿富汗战争中的情形一样,令人恐怖的图像也可能会激起更多的暴力,或者变得习以为常,甚至觉得厌烦。苏珊·桑塔格曾指出,图像本身并不能保证导致(同情者采取)行动。这也包括全球藏人都不禁寄以期望的这类图像。但藏人自焚的图像却像是转入了(祈望中的)来世,以坚信所有观者必会呼吁并采取行动的信念而流传。似乎舍此信念,就会断送终止西藏苦难的机会。

注释:

[1]罗杰•贝克(Roger Baker,艾德•威廉在“社会公正激发自焚抗议”一文中引用。2012年2月8日发布。(于2012年2月20日访问)

[2]截止2012年3月28日,在西藏境内有三十一例经证实的自焚,在印度有三例。有关最近在西藏和印度的事件,见http://www.rfa.org/english/news/tibet/burn-03282012142200.html;就事件追踪更新,见http://www.savetibet.org/resource-center/maps-data-fact-sheets/self-immolation-fact-sheet

3)全球藏人拒绝庆祝洛萨/藏历新年,即始于2012222日。七起介绍西藏境内自焚的录像或照片,不是正在进行中的自焚现场就是刚刚自焚后的身体状况,早在20123月初就流传到网上:于2011316日自焚的洛桑平措,21岁;于2011815日自焚的次旺诺布,29岁;于2011926日自焚的洛桑贡确,18岁;于20111017日自焚的丹增旺姆,20岁;于20111925日自焚的达瓦次仁,38岁;于2011113日自焚的班丹曲措,35岁;于201216日自焚的年格•索南竹杰/索巴仁波切,42岁。

4)例如,达兰萨拉藏青会的录像“图伯特/西藏境内藏人自焚”,由Tenzin Norsang Panamserkhang编辑,2012226日。

5)有关酷刑和伤害的照片,见茨仁唯色的“被屠杀藏人和受伤藏人的血腥图片”(唯色注:此标题可能是最早发布时用过,后已改为“色达抗议藏人遭镇压照片传出”)。 201222日发布(于2012221日访问)。有关安全部队部署的录像,见瓦茨,乔纳森和肯•麦克法兰“西藏中心地带的抗议-录像”,2012210日发布(于2012221日访问)。

6)见 http://www.freetibet.org/campaigns/photos.发布前可能有裁剪,但编辑模糊面部的处理随处可见。


9)在华盛顿特区的集会上,在念诵自焚者的名字时,一个接一个的僧俗藏人从手持抗议标语和图像的抗议人群中站出来,挥舞红色-金黄色的绸布,然后盖在头上,躺倒在地。见“西藏在燃烧”(由Lhaksam 媒体录制)录像的940处。

10)纪念图像以英文、藏文和中文加注,说明自焚者的名字、年龄、自焚时间、僧人或俗人、出生地,以及是亡故还是重伤或失踪。

11)用“自由英灵”(也可译作独立英灵)和“民族英魂”为题,可以分析、窥见藏人流亡社会在政治诉求性质上的分歧,是争取独立还是自治,是否遵从尊者达赖喇嘛的中间道路。很难从非常有限的解说资料中推断自焚者的本意、情感和期望;制作人如何界定他们的图像和行动使得辨别具体藏人个人的行为(动机)更加困难,而只是反映了不同集体的意愿。

12)在俄勒冈州波特兰市的马尔巴佛学院院长扬思仁波切说,藏人社会(对自焚)的反应主要是悲伤,“哪怕是一位藏人的生命损失”(都非常令人悲伤)。并且,促请“坚守非暴力” 抗争的呼声也在增长,迄今为止仍是通过非暴力方式来争取“全世界藏人的利益”不能受到损害,最后,也有担心这种行动会分裂图伯特/西藏以外的藏人社区,比如在西方和在印度的藏人社区,这也将是令人“非常悲伤”的。(个人通信,201232)

13)例如,唯色在她充满感情的文章中,批评了藏人流亡政府首席部长洛桑森格博士在念诵自焚者名字时,遗漏了2009年的第一位自焚僧人扎白,在不同的博客文章和在线评论上,藏人们反对使用诸如“多达二十几人”这样的叙述,而要求有准确数字。

14)苏珊•桑塔格,《他人的痛苦》,纽约:皮卡多/法拉,斯特劳斯和吉鲁编。2003年。

The Afterlife of Images
Leigh Sangster, Maitripa College

Self-immolations draw attention to a cause and rally support in part because of their powerful visual imagery.[1]  Seemingly everyday images of and about self-immolation by Tibetans are created and circulated online, particularly with the wave of incidents in the past six months that now total thirty-three cases.[2]  And yet, as of the forgone Tibetan New Year of 2012, it may surprise some to learn that documentary photography and videos of self-immolation or its immediate aftermath have been published outside of Tibet for only seven acts since 2009.[3]  A cycle of transnational circulation only then begins. Raw videos and photographs – of self-immolation, protests, mourners, and journalists’ furtive recordings – are smuggled out of Tibet to be posted on the websites of Tibetan and mainstream news channels and organizations, from which they are sourced for a variety of media, across the globe.

The self-immolation of thirty-five year old nun Palden Choetso in Tawu, Kham on 11 March 2011 and her funerary rituals are the most extensively documented. One video begins, unsteadily at first, with Choetso standing still on the street engulfed in flame. Shouting can be heard. A single woman in a Tibetan chuba dress walks from the sidewalk towards the curb, a long white khatag scarf in her hands. As she raises her arms to throw the khatag toward the blaze, Choetso collapses to the ground. The video stops.

Palden Choetso’s self-immolation was also filmed from a second story window above the street. This grainy video starts as dozens of Tibetan witnesses quickly gather around Choetso’s prostrate body, immobilized and afire, her legs and feet contorted off the ground. The crowd is several people deep. A monk inside the circle paces and pulls a large yellow cloth from a plastic package as he waits for the blaze to die back enough to permit him to draw nearer. He stands poised to cover the nun’s body with the cloth as several white khatag are thrown like streamers to the nun’s burning body. The camera angle shifts to focus on a Tibetan man with a long stick at the edge of the crowd; he is holding back half a dozen police from breaking through the Tibetan crowd towards the nun. The film stops. Two short clips of several seconds each show Palden Choetso’s black, burned corpse surrounded by shiny white khatag in a monastery; one video zooms in on small damaged photos of the Dalai Lama and another lama next to her body. One presumes she carried these images on her person that morning. Other clips show thousands of Tibetans at night, queuing with khatag and butter lamps to pay their respects, chanting prayers, and crying in a crowded temple hall. These videos of Palden Cheotso tell an unimaginable story and yet total only five minutes. A still shot from the first video, of Choetso still alive and engulfed in flame, has been used to illustrate numerous articles in the Western press, and the footage has been sequenced with others in videos by Tibetan editors for documentaries, that circulate online and elsewhere.[4]




Figure 1: Self-immolation of nun Palden Choetso, 3 November 2011. REUTERS
Video and photography also show intimidating displays of force by the Chinese state by highlighting the deployments of paramilitary troops and attacks on non-violent protestors.[5]  Photographs of bullet wounds, allegedly sustained when paramilitary fired into crowds, seem to have carefully omitted faces from the frame of the picture to protect the anonymity of the injured and to protect those caring for them not in hospitals but in private homes.[6] 


Figure 2 Police drag away a protestor who was allegedly fatally shot while peacefully demonstrating in Serthar [7]


Figure 3 Tibetan shot 23 January 2012 by Chinese Police in Drango, Kham [8]
Witnesses have been compelled to photograph the injured and charred bodies of deceased Tibetans in monasteries and private homes, including that of the beloved religious leader Sopa Rinpoche (Sonam Wangyal) and the nun Tenzin Wangmo, her blackened body smoking on an open field of green grass as a small group of maroon robed nuns run towards their sister.  These constitute important visual documentary evidence of these cases and are available on websites behind warnings stating viewer discretion is advised, but such images are not typically shown in western or Tibetan media. They are both more gruesome and less dynamic in their visual power and may contravene respect for the deceased and the focus of attention on their act rather than their fate.


Figure 4 Nun Tenzin Wangmo, 17 October 2011. Tibetan Women’s Association.
Tibetan activists worldwide instead circulate images of self-immolations and ordinary portrait pictures of the self-immolators prior to injury or death in composite images online—in blogs, Facebook and YouTube posts—and in the hands of, and even reenacted by,[9]  marching and mourning Tibetans from India to Washington D.C. For example, commemorative videos feature slideshows of the self-immolators with audio tracks including Tibetan nationalistic and rock songs, a speech by the Prime Minister, Dr. Lobsang Sangay, and the tape-recorded last testament of Sopa Rinpoche.  Portraits are incorporated into digital templates and used singly or chronologically arranged into one large grid, with multi-lingual captions [10]  and headlines such as Freedom Hero or Patriotic Hero.[11]  Arguably, exile groups hope to stir but also reach beyond their own communities with an appeal for political aid.


Figure 5 TsampaRevolution listing of self-immolators, 5 March 2012.




Figure 6 Tibetan protesters in Taipei hold signs commemorating self-immolators. The Wall Street Journal. 19 October 2011.
In recent months, I have watched these images in multiple locations and replayed them in my mind, again and again. I have struggled with a tension between the specificity of one life and collective concerns and responses that life is said to represent. The available images make the individual real to us, but also leave me craving fuller knowledge of the unique circumstances (devout monastic, widowed mother, impoverished nomad) and dramatic appeals (entreating embrace of culture, plea for the return of the Dalai Lama, demand for freedom of speech and religion, for independence) each embody. Tibetan communities honor individuals, even as they become one in a growing number, when each act is depicted, each life lost is visibly grieved,[12]   and distress erupts when an exact and accurate count of self-immolators is muddled.[13] 

And yet, the urgency and alarm has also led to a cultural ethos in Tibet and in exile which emphasizes unity. The acts of individuals are translated into a mass movement, and central to this mobilization is the viral circulation of images.  The imagery that began as slim evidence of an individual, through its circulation, becomes a symbol for global, anti-China protest.

What might these images and their varied uses tell us about the situation inside Tibet? How do we think through the ethics and politics of the circulation and viewing of human bodies on fire, burnt, beaten, or shot? I am reminded of Susan Sontag’s reflections on regarding the pain of others and her conviction that we cannot know what it is like to be there, to be them, unless we have lived it ourselves.[14]  Short of this, we have only a moral imperative to not become numb to the suffering around us. We want images to do something, but, as in this long decade of war in Iraq and Afghanistan, images of horror can incite further violence, or become routine, even boring. Images alone, Sontag argues, do not guarantee action, especially of the sort Tibetans worldwide cannot help but place their hopes in. The afterlife of images of Tibetans’ self-immolation circulate in the faith that viewers will demand and create action. To do otherwise would foreclose the possibility of the cessation of suffering in Tibet.

28 March 2012
NOTES
[1] Roger Baker, cited in Ide, William. Social Justice Fuels Self-Immolation Protests. February 8, 2012. (accessed 20 February 2012).

[2] As of 28 March 2012, there have been thirty-one confirmed cases of self-immolation inside Tibet and three by Tibetans in India. For most recent incidents in Tibet and India, see http://www.rfa.org/english/news/tibet/burn-03282012142200.html; for updated Fact Sheet, see http://www.savetibet.org/resource-center/maps-data-fact-sheets/self-immolation-fact-sheet

[3] Tibetan communities worldwide declined to celebrate Losar, Tibetan New Year, which began on February 22, 2012. Video and/or photography footage of seven cases of self-immolation inside Tibet, either of the act in progress and/or the condition of the body immediately afterwards, were accessible online as early as March 2012: Lobsang Phuntsok, twenty-one years old, self-immolated on 16 March 2011; Tsewang Norbu, twenty-nine years old, self-immolated on 15 August 2011; Lobsang Kunchok, eighteen years old, self-immolated 26 September 2011; Tenzin Wangmo, twenty years old, self-immolated on 17 October 2011; Dawa Tsering, thirty-eight years old, self-immolated on 25 October 2011; Palden Choesang (Choetso), thirty-five years old, self-immolated on 3 November 2011; Sonam Wangyal, Sopa Rinpoche, forty-two years old, self-immolated on 8 January 2012.

[4] For example, see the Tibetan Youth Congress of Dharamsala video “Tibetans self-immolation inside Tibet,” Edited by Tenzin Norsang Panamserkhang, 26 February 2012.


[5] Photographs of abuse and injury, see Woeser, Sherab. Gory Images of Tibetans killed and injured reach exile. 2 February 2012.  (accessed 21 February 2012).
Video showing security deployments include: Watts, Jonathan and Ken Macfarlane.
Inside Tibet's heart of protest-video. 10 February 2012. (accessed 21 February 2012).

[6] http://www.freetibet.org/campaigns/photos. The cropping may have been done prior to publication, but editorial intervention is frequently seen as blurred out faces.


[9] At a Washington, D.C. rally, during the recitation of the names of the self-immolators, lay and monastic Tibetans burst one by one from a circle of observers holding protest and memorial images. They twirled red- orange cloth around their bodies before pulling it over their heads and falling to the ground. See 9:40 minutes into the video “Tibet is Burning” by Lhaksam Media


[10] The commemorative images are labeled in combinations of English, Tibetan, and Chinese, with information regarding individuals’ name, age, date of self-immolation, monastery or town of origin, and status as deceased, critical condition, or missing.

[11] The use of Freedom Hero, also translatable as Independence Hero [rang btsan dpa’ bo pa], and Patriotic Hero [rgyal gces dpa’ bo] could be analyzed in light of the rift in Tibetan exile communities regarding the nature of their political fight for either independence or autonomy and whether activism should proceed in accord with the Dalai Lama’s Middle Way approach or not.  It is difficult on the basis of the scarce evidence in raw footage to deduce the self-immolators’ intentions, feelings, and hopes; the ways in which others frame their images and actions can make discernment of individual Tibetans’ acts even more challenging but illumine the concerns of various collectives.

[12] Yangsi Rinpoche, President of Maitripa College in Portland, OR, said the reaction of the Tibetan community is mainly sadness over “the loss of even one Tibetan life.” Additionally, the urge arises to “protect non-violence” such that these incidents do not “jeopardize the benefit in the world and for Tibet” that has so far been attained through non-violence, and finally, the fear that this act may spread into Tibetan communities outside Tibet, such as in India and the West, which would be also “very sad”. Personal Communication, 2 March 2012. 

[13] For example, Woeser has written passionate condemnations of the Prime Minister of the Central Tibetan Authority in exile, Dr. Lobsang Sangay’s, omission from a recitation of names of Tapey, the first monk to self-immolate in 2009, and on various blogs and comment sections in online news sites, Tibetans have objected to terms such as “more than two dozen” in favor of an exact number.

[14] Sontag, Susan. Regarding the Pain of Others. New York: Picador/Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003.